The Golden Age of Islam: Rise of the Abbasids

Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. The Rise of Islam
3. The Umayyad Caliphate
4. The Abbasid Revolution
5. The Abbasid Caliphate
6. Harun al-Rashid and the Golden Age
7. Cultural Achievements
8. The Eastern Roman Empire
9. Succession and Civil War
10. The Slave Soldiers
11. The Mongol Onslaught
12. Conclusion

The Abbasid Caliphate: Islam's Golden Age

The Abbasid Caliphate was one of the greatest empires in history, reigning for five centuries and overseeing an era of Islamic military dominance, city-building, brilliant scholarship, and technological innovation. It is remembered as Islam's 'golden age'. In this article, we will explore the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, its cultural achievements, and its eventual decline.

The Rise of Islam

In 632 AD, the prophet Muhammad died in the Arabian city of Medina. His followers, professing the new religion of Islam, swept across the Arabian peninsula, uniting it under the rule of Abu Bakr, the first 'caliph', God's deputy on earth. Then they burst upon the world stage, taking on the two superpowers of the Middle East - the Eastern Roman and Sassanid Empires. Both were vulnerable after decades of war, and the Muslims waged a stunning campaign, winning victory after victory. By 651, they had overrun two-thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire and almost all of the Sassanid Empire.

The Umayyad Caliphate

But in 656, the third caliph, Uthman, was assassinated, sparking the first Muslim Civil War, or Fitna. Ali – cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad - had the support of the people. But he was opposed by the governor of Syria - Uthman's kinsman, Mu'awiya. Five years of bloodshed culminated in Ali's assassination at Kufa. Mu'awiya emerged triumphant and established a new Umayyad Caliphate. Further conquests helped to forge one of the largest empires in history. But it was riven by more civil war.

The Abbasid Revolution

One challenge came from Husayn, son of Ali, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. He opposed the succession of Mu'awiya's son, Yazid. But in 680, he and his followers were defeated and killed at the Battle of Karbala. Supporters of Ali and his descendants later became the Shiites. They still commemorate Husayn's death each year, on the Day of Ashura. The vast Umayyad Caliphate continued to expand. But it contained serious internal divisions. Much of what we know about the Umayyad Caliphate comes from later sources, often hostile. But it seems clear that the small Arab, Muslim elite that dominated this great empire was increasingly unpopular with many of its subjects – including some of those later termed 'dhimmi'. These were non-Muslims, including Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians, who were treated as an underclass and made to pay extra tax. Even those who did convert to Islam – known as 'mawali' - were often treated as Second-class subjects. Decades of discontent were about to boil over.

The Abbasid Caliphate

The symbol of Umayyad authority was their white banner. But in 747, a new symbol rose to challenge their rule - the black banners of the Abbasids. The Abbasids were an Arab family, descended from the Prophet Muhammad's uncle al-Abbas, from whom they take their name. They and their supporters believe this blood tie to the Prophet gives them legitimate claim to the title of Caliph, far more so than the Umayyads, whom the Abbasids later portray as decadent and despised. The Abbasids promised a return to 'true Islam', to correct teachings and moral leadership, and sent missionaries and agents out across the Caliphate to spread their message. In 747, with the Caliphate once more racked by revolt and civil war, the Abbasids seized their chance.

Harun al-Rashid and the Golden Age

In the reign of Al-Mansur's grandson, Harun al-Rashid, the Caliphate flourished as Never before – with Baghdad at its heart. There are many legends told about Caliph Harun al-Rashid, 'the Rightly Guided'. He is, after all, a central figure in One Thousand and One Nights - the masterpiece of Arabic literature. The image of al-Rashid that reaches us from such sources is of a devout, wise and beneficent ruler, who prayed 100 times a day, and each morning, gave 1,000 dirhams to good causes. In legend, al-Rashid wandered the streets of Baghdad disguised as a beggar, to see how his subjects lived; he was a brilliant horseman and patron of the arts, and a keen chess player.

Cultural Achievements

Cultural life in the Caliphate, and Baghdad in particular, was remarkably cosmopolitan. The Abbasid court even celebrated Persian holidays such as Nowruz - Persian New Year. Such open-mindedness helped the Caliphate to flourish as a centre of culture, science, arts, and medicine. The centre of learning was the city's famous library, Bayt al-Hikmah - the House of Wisdom, though little of its function is known today. Here and across the caliphate, scholars translated classical works from Greek, Middle Persian, and Sanskrit into Arabic. Their efforts ensured the survival of countless works that would otherwise have been lost, including those by great figures such as Aristotle and Galen. They also made many of their own, original discoveries - knowledge that would come to be much sought after by the medieval West.

The Eastern Roman Empire

In the 7th Century, the first Arab conquests had pushed the frontier of the Eastern Roman Empire back to the Taurus Mountains. Since then, the Caliphate and Empire had been in a state of almost perpetual war, with frequent raids by both sides across the Syrian frontier. Twice, the Arabs had even besieged Constantinople itself… but failed to take the great city. In 782, al-Rashid himself had led an Abbasid force as far as the shores of the Bosphorus. By 804, the Eastern Roman Empire was paying annual tribute to the Caliphate. When Emperor Nikerphoros stopped the payments, an Abbasid army crossed the Taurus Mountains and took his army by surprise at Krasos. The Romans suffered a heavy defeat. The Emperor himself was lucky to escape with his life.

Succession and Civil War

In 809, news arrived of revolt in Khorasan. It was while travelling east to face down this rebellion that Caliph Harun Al-Rashid became sick and died. His 22-year reign would come to be seen as a golden age for the Abbasid Caliphate - a time of prosperity, stability, intellectual and cultural achievement. But al-Rashid's own efforts to ensure a peaceful succession were about to backfire disastrously… and plunge the Caliphate back into civil war.

The Slave Soldiers

The Abbasids had long relied on slave soldiers, known as Mamluks, to bolster their armies. But in the 9th century, a new caste of slave soldiers emerged - the Turkish Ghulams. They were trained from childhood in the arts of war, and their loyalty was to their commanders rather than the Caliphate. They soon became a powerful force within the Caliphate, and their commanders began to challenge the authority of the Caliphs themselves.

The Mongol Onslaught

In the 13th century, the Mongols swept across Asia, destroying everything in their path. In 1258, they sacked Baghdad, bringing an end to the Abbasid Caliphate. The Caliph himself was killed, and the city was left in ruins. The Mongol onslaught was one of the greatest disasters in Islamic history, and it marked the end of an era.

Conclusion

The Abbasid Caliphate was a remarkable period in Islamic history, marked by cultural achievement, military dominance, and technological innovation. It was a time of great prosperity and stability, but it was also a time of internal divisions and civil war. The Caliphate eventually fell to the Mongol onslaught, but its legacy lived on, shaping the course of Islamic history for centuries to come.

Highlights

• The Abbasid Caliphate was one of the greatest empires in history, reigning for five centuries and overseeing an era of Islamic military dominance, city-building, brilliant scholarship, and technological innovation.
• The Abbasids promised a return to 'true Islam', to correct teachings and moral leadership, and sent missionaries and agents out across the Caliphate to spread their message.
• Cultural life in the Caliphate, and Baghdad in particular, was remarkably cosmopolitan. The Abbasid court even celebrated Persian holidays such as Nowruz - Persian New Year.
• The Mongol onslaught was one of the greatest disasters in Islamic history, and it marked the end of an era.

FAQ

Q: What was the Abbasid Caliphate? A: The Abbasid Caliphate was one of the greatest empires in history, reigning for five centuries and overseeing an era of Islamic military dominance, city-building, brilliant scholarship, and technological innovation.

Q: What did the Abbasids promise? A: The Abbasids promised a return to 'true Islam', to correct teachings and moral leadership, and sent missionaries and agents out across the Caliphate to spread their message.

Q: What was the House of Wisdom? A: The House of Wisdom was the city's famous library, Bayt al-Hikmah, though little of its function is known today. Here and across the caliphate, scholars translated classical works from Greek, Middle Persian, and Sanskrit into Arabic.

Q: What was the Mongol onslaught? A: In the 13th century, the Mongols swept across Asia, destroying everything in their path. In 1258, they sacked Baghdad, bringing an end to the Abbasid Caliphate.